PDP2- All-African People's Conference: Resolution on Imperialism and Colonialism, Accra

PDP2- All-African People's Conference: Resolution on Imperialism and Colonialism, Accra, December 5-13, 1958

Author Bio: The author of this article is not listed, since it is essentially a summary of the All-African People’s Conference. The summary goes over the agreements that were reached by the many representatives that attended it, including leaders from Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and the United Arab Republic. There were also delegates from 28 African countries and colonies. The chairman was Tom Mboya. 

Date/Context: The first part of the conference was preceded by a preparatory committee that was composed of representatives from the eight independent African states. This was where the eight countries began to plan out the conference and what would be discussed in it. During this period most of the African nations were still under colonial rule by the European powers. 

Summary: One of the most important discussions and points made during this conference was over the legitimacy and desirability of using violence against the colonial powers. They reached the agreement that in some cases it would necessary to use violence against the colonial powers in order to gain independence. In Algeria, full support was provided to the recently proclaimed Provision Republican government, which was part of the liberation campaign for Algeria. In Cameroon, the conference decided to support the fight for the UPC maquis or the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon, which was a pro liberation group for Cameroon. These groups demanded full amnesty and elections in the country that would be sponsored by the UN. Some of the key strategies that the conference agreed upon were unity and solidarity. The fight against colonialism and economic domination required that the countries create Africa-wide organizations that would allow the countries to create their own economies and retake their countries through economic prowess, this included trade unions, and a Bureau of Liberatory Movements. It was also during this conference that it was decided to establish a permanent secretariat at Accra. The first secretary general of this time, George Padmore, lived in Ghana. Then in the following year he died and was replaced by Guinea’s resident minister in Ghana, Abdoulaye Diallo. This conference was political in the struggle for full African independence, because it was one of the first instances in which many African nationalist leaders came into contact with one another, these leaders being the ones that had already gained independence for their countries. Thus, they would be able to help another country gain their own independence. All in all, the conference established that although it may be difficult the fight for independence sometimes requires violence, and not only attempting to overtake the country through economic or political conquest. Also, at the time coming to conclusions on situations that exist in some countries but the situation is more of a grey area. 

Key Quotation: “Whereas the great bulk of the African continent has been carved out arbitrarily to the detriment of the indigenous African…”

PDP2 - Using “Tribe” and “Tribalism”: to Misunderstand African Societies

PDP2 -  Using “Tribe” and “Tribalism”: to Misunderstand African Societies

Author Bio: The author of this article is David Wiley, a professor in the Department of Sociology and African Studies Center at Michigan State University. His studies are mainly focused on religious and social movements and urban development in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Kenya, and South Africa. Wiley has also researched militarization in Africa. He has published many papers on different regarding Africa and this one being how tribe and tribalism is often used wrong by many people. Since David Wiley focuses his studies on a few countries in Africa, he mentions only a few of those countries in his article and does not give examples from many other countries outside of his research area. This means that he could be missing some important information on the topic that has taken place in other countries in Africa.

Date/Context: The term tribe and tribalism developed more contemporary meanings and uses during the 19th-century. This was during the rise of evolutionary and racist theories. The new uses and meanings were centered around labeling groups of people as less civilized and inferior. This article was written in 2013 which means that the meaning and uses of the term tribe and tribalism has evolved and changed over the long period of time between when the term began to develop more contemporary meanings and when the article was published.

Summary:This article essentially explains how the meaning of the term tribe and tribalism has changed and how this is changing our views on African Societies. The meaning of the term tribe began to change during the 19th-century and was used to label groups of people as inferior or less civilized. Many authors used tribe when describing a group with a common language, common culture, ancestral lineages, or common governments or rulers. Zimbabwe and South African governments used the term tribe and tribal to liberal movements that were beginning to go against their racial rule. They described the people in these movements as “tribally based” which was intended to mean disorganized and less civilized people. These movements were named the ZAPU and ZANU, ZAPU represents the Shona tribe and ZANO represents the Ndebele tribe. The labeling of these two groups was inaccurate because many of the members did not represent the Shona and Ndebele tribes. The differences in histories, leaderships, styles, goals, and memberships in Zimbabwe lead to the creation of ethnic identities which some called tribal identities. The term ethnicity is used to describe a group that has some similarities, but tribalism is the label used in Africa. Misnaming ethnicity in Africa can cause miscommunications and lead to errors. The U.S. foreign policy in Africa has made mistakes that led to, “...miscalculations of U.S. interests and errors of judgment.” These mistakes can lead to underestimating the situation. The usage of the term “tribe” by different journalist and scholars has contributed to shaping our views on African societies. Tribe is used to label groups of 100 people or millions of people which greatly reduces the amount of diversity that is found in Africa. The article concludes by saying that the term “tribe” could not be used to properly describe pre-colonial africa and has even less validity in contemporary Africa.  

Key Quotation: “‘Societies that are classified as tribal seem to be very diverse in their organization, having little in common.’ Morton H. Fried and this author contend that ‘the term is so ambiguous and confusing that it should be abandoned by social scientists.’”

PDP 2- The Question of South Africa

PDP 2- The Question of South Africa

Author Bio: Bishop Desmond Tutu, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984, was born in 1931 and was 53 years old at the time he delivered the speech. Tutu was the first Black Archbishop or Capetown in the Angelicam Church. Desmond used his high powered position to speak against the policy regarding segregation of race in South Africa. Desmond Tutu had an average amount of bias on the topic, however, he did not want justice for just blacks of South Africa but for the whites as well.

Date/Context: Desmond Tutu broke the serrated barriers becoming the first Black Archbishop. The speech was originally delivered at the United Nations Security Council, on October 23, 1984. Desmond was speaking out against Apartheid in South Africa, asking for the policy to change in order for the implementation of great human rights for the Blacks in South Africans.

Summary: At the time that Desmond Tutu made the speech, "The Question of South Africa" the Apartheid was in place. The Apartheid was a policy that mandated that there would be segregation between then races. The social and political conditions of South Africa are opposite of what one may think the conditions may be. One may think that people would be living happily in peace with a surplus of resources because of the beautiful environment, however, the people of South Africa, as described by Tutu were living in misery and fear everyday because of the social injustices. Desmond described that people lived like this because of the high unemployment rates cause by the ongoing drought, as well as the implementation of increased food prices and rent from the government. According to Tutu, the world was not taking actions on these living conditions because the conditions did not cause mass casualties. Tutu believed that all social and political conditions in South Africa routed from the Apartheid. Examples that Tutu gives of the social injustices include the stripping of their citizenship for population removals and the destruction of poor Blacks shelters. Furthermore Desmond Tutu used detailed examples of the killings of innocent black children, officials, and infants. During this speech Tutu was asking the Security Council of the United Nations to pressure the government in South Africa to negotiate the apartheid. The ultimate goal of Desmond Tutu was to peacefully eliminate the apartheid, creating a safe peaceful environment for both white and black South Africans. Desmond did not want true fairness and justice for the blacks but also for the whites of South Africa. Tutu expresses that he is willing to share a non violent democratic country with the Whites.

Key Quotation: "Through this lofty body I wish to appeal to my white fellow South Africans to share in building a new society, for blacks are not intent on driving whites into the sea but on claiming only their rightful place in the sun in their land of their birth."

PDP2 - Charter of the Organization of African Unity

Author Bio: Although there was no written author of this primary document, the editor, Paul Halsall, is an editor and originator of "The Internet Modern History Sourcebook". He translated the primary source document for teaching purposes. The document provided the guidelines that the Organization of African Unity would follow from the interpretations of Paul Halsall which makes this specific document a secondary source.

Date/Context: This document is from 1963 when the Organization of African Unity was first established. During this time, many African countries had just recently gained their independence from their European colonists so this group was aimed toward unifying many of the new independent countries with new governments and leaders.

Summary: This document was created by the Heads of African States and Governments when they gathered together in Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. It outlined the basics of the purposes for the group, the parts of each member state that needed to be harmonized, the rights of each member state, and other general policies for the organization. The purposes of the Organization of African Unity was to promote the unity of the African states, cooperate with each other in order to create a better life for all African peoples, to get rid of all forms of colonialism in Africa, and to promote international cooperation. They also strived toward equality for all members of the organization meaning giving them all equal rights and equal responsibilities. Any independent African state has the right to join the organization so they can create peace throughout Africa.

Key Quotation: "Convinced that it is the inalienable right of all people to control their own destiny;conscious of the fact that freedom, equality, justice and dignity are essential objectives for the achievement of the legitimate aspirations of the African peoples;"

PDP2- Travels in Africa

PDP2- Travels in Africa

Author Bio: The author of this article is Muhammad Idn Adbullah Ibn Battuta or also known as Shams ad-Din. He was born in Tangier, Morocco and later in his life traveled around the rest of Africa and Asia for 24 years. In the Middle East, he traveled to every Muslim state and was therefore one of the most knowledgeable people about African and Muslim development at the time. In addition, in 1352 he visited the empire of Mali. This article details the account of his journey, incorporating Ibn Battuta’s own individual information, background, and religion.

Date/Context: Ibn Battuta began his journey to the empire of Mali in February of 1352. During this time, he was about 48 years old and this travel was essentially the last years of his life. In his account, he periodically recalls the amount of days or months he spent in an area as well. These details allow the reader to develop a deeper understanding of the setting and how much occurred in that allotted time period.

Summary: This account is essentially a description of the experiences that Ibn Battuta had while traveling through Africa. The reading is set up chronologically as he provides details and insights from the journey in the order in which they occurred. His first location was Taghaza which he disliked very much as it consisted solely of sand and salt mines with no trees. Also, the only inhabitants included slaves who dug for salt all day and lived off small rations of food imported from Dar’a and Sijilmasa. Ibn Battuta then describes how the Sudan collect the salt from Taghaza and use it as currency. After his stay here, he and his group began traveling again. With this, he recalls the hardships of wandering through the wilderness with scarcity of water and lice so overwhelming it lead people to death. In addition, after another man became lost in desert, his group and him knew better than leave the rest of people. The guide, whom Idn Battuta says was blind in one eye and possessed a disease in the other, lead them effortlessly through the blowing sand with no path or road to follow. After two months of enduring the travel, they finally arrived at Iwalatan. Ibn Battuta did not favor this location either as the people possessed ill manners. After being pulled along by the others in his group, he attended the invitation from the mushrif of Iwalatan which was essentially a large banquet. They stayed here for about 50 days until leaving, and when they did, Ibn Battuta reflected on other aspects of the location he did not admire. The main one being the freedom to openly have other partners in a relationship or marriage. This made him uncomfortable and not want to visit again as he was obviously not used to this arrangement. From here, he dedicates a section to other aspects of Sudan that he did not approve of, as well as ones that he did. He begins with the positives and states that he admires their lack of oppression. He also discusses security, commitment to religion, clothing attire, and eagerness to memorize the great Koran. The reading concludes with those items that he disapproves of which consist primarily of the fact that all female servants, young and old, are not clothed in front of the men. In general, Muhammad Idn Adbullah Ibn Battuta’s account provides the reader with opinions, facts, and personal experiences from his journey around Africa.

Key Quotation: “Those people have remarkable and strange ways.”

PDP2 - The Kenya Africa Union is Not the Mau Mau

Author Bio: Jomo Kenyatta was the 1st President of Kenya (12 Dec. 1964 - 22 August 1978) and the first Prime minister of Kenya (1 June 1963 - 12 Dec. 1964). He was also a chairman of KANU (Kenya African National Union). He was a very influential statesman in Africa. He followed a moderate pro-Western and anti-Communist economic philosophy and foreign policy. He also oversaw Kenya’s acceptance into the United Nations as well as the independence of Kenya. 

Date/Context: This was the speech at the African Union meeting at Nyeri, July 26, 1952. Many people are mistaking the Kenya African Union for the Mau Mau. The Kenya African Union, later called the Kenya African Nation Union, was devoted to break rule from British Kenya. Many protests and riots were occurring in British Kenya in the 1950’s and many KAU leaders were imprisoned. Guerrilla warfare tactics finally of the Land and Freedom army led to the conclusion  the the KAU were Mau Mau but Kenyatta later explains that only the Mau Mau were an organization of violence while the KAU was not. 

Summary:  This speech was given to the Kenya African Union by Jomo Kenyatta who explains how the KAU is not the Mau Mau in the respect of violence. He also explains the many goals and expectations of the KAU such as increased wages for people of all social status and equality in a working aspect (salary). He tells of the laws that the KAU will put forth once it has taken over Kenya (robbery, thieving and murder will be against the law). He later emphasizes in his speech the importance of the prohibition on alcohol. He says “It is harming to our country and making people fools and encouraging crime”. He wraps up his speech with a summary of what he said plus a obligation to the people not to drink alcohol and be peaceful to the Royal Commission comes to Kenya from Great Britain. 

Key Quotation: “K.A.U is not a fighting union that uses fists and weapons”.

SJS1: The Next Democratic Century

Title: The Next Democratic Century

Citation: Diamond, Larry. “The Next Democratic Century.” Current History (2014): 8-12. Print.

Author Credentials: The author of this journal entry was Larry Diamond. Diamond was a contributing editor and coeditor of the Journal of Democracy. He is an older man who works at the Hoover Institution and the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies at Stanford University. He has written one book; "The Spirit of Democracy: The Struggle to Build Free Societies Throughout the World" in 2008.

Summary: Democratic ruling is somewhat scattered right now in terms of location, and it is difficult to say what or who will follow this path and what countries will choose to override democracy and choose a more forceful type of government. A lot of countries that once held onto democracy, such as the United States, are struggling to really show how we implement democracy into our governmental systems. Other countries that never favored democracy, are leaning even further away from it than before. Many breakdowns occurred at the beginning of the 21st century because of military forces or smaller dilemmas, and affected huge areas such as Nigeria and Russia. Africa is the most common site of a degrading trend of democracies. Most democracies break down due to the mixed forms of government throughout the world. Formal democratic governments do not have the strength to fortify against more powerful forms of government, causing them to fall apart. The easy fix seems to strengthen the number and quality of solutions in all political areas of the world, but scientists and historians have explained that it is one of the toughest challenges to overcome such a global obstacle. Democracies also struggle by passing the "liberal" test. Many democracies have attempted to become a formal group with this test but have failed.  Different situations have occurred in different parts of the world that were focused on tearing democrats apart, and most of them succeeded. However, there is hope for the future of democracy. Countries such as Asia are economically develop and could potentially develop a democracy with their rising education and income levels. People's value priorities are shifting, so there is optimism towards the countries that seem to be struggling with the idea of a democracy at the moment. Some countries will most likely never become a successful democracy (such as Egypt), but the article says that anything can happen and today's events might not end up being as big of an influence as predicted. In essence, there is a lot to consider when discussing democracy throughout the world. Every section of the earth has a different population, culture, economy, and much more, which are all factors that contribute to democracy in the future, so there is no accurate prediction of what's to come.

Analysis: Diamond makes a strong argument in his article. He thoroughly discusses all of the ups and downs related to democracy, using facts of the past and real life events to predict ideas for the future. He discusses the influence of history on the present, which shows he knows the events that have taken place and has applied his knowledge of geography and different cultures to come up with a hypothesis. He supports his argument with significant evidence by discussing big historical events that have influenced modern geography. He includes information from major scientific discoveries to help support his hypothesis. He does a great job of distinguishing between fact and opinion; especially writing about how "nothing is certain". He shows that he has his estimates and uncertainties about the world and describes how they are different from the truth. I also believe he is a reliable source because his article comes from a scholarly journal that has been approved, and some of the information in his source comes from reliable discoveries.

SJS 1 - "Letter From Damascus: Will Syria Descend into Civil War?"

                           SJS 1 - "Letter From Damascus: Will Syria Descend into Civil War?" 
Citation: Moubayed, Sami. "Letter from Damascus: Will Syria Descend into Civil War." Current History 110.740 (2011): 339-44. Print.

Author Credentials: Sami Moubayed is a Syrian historian. During 2012 and 2013 he was a scholar for the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Beirut. He has writings of his published in several magazines such as al-Ahram Weekly, Gulf News, The Daily Star, the Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, and Asia Times. He also published a book "Under the Black Flag: At the Frontier of the New Jihad" and was the editor in chief at a magazine publisher. Finally, he was a professor at the University of Kalamoon. 

Summary: This article presents the idea that Syria may fall into a Civil War. It starts with the fact that the Tunisian revolt influenced many Syrians to rise up and support the act of rebellion. Social media pages flew the electronic flag of the Tunisian Flag. The citizens of Syria believed that their president, Bashar al-Assad was fit to run their government and was going to solve the problems arising in the country. Soon though, the tensions were risen when there were a series of uproars including the arrest of two school children for painting anti-regeme on the walls and many protests in Jassem. There seems to be no stoping the violence, the government placed troops in major cities across the nation.  The country has gone forward by reforming the government. At this time in the article, elections will be held soon and a noticeable political party is the Syrian Democratic Party. Syria has had sanctions put on them and credit cards cut off from them, which raised tensions even higher than before. As a result of this, there have been assassinations and a war may be on the verge of breaking out even though the country says that everything is fine.

Analysis: Moubayed makes a strong argument that Syria is on the verge of a civil war. He states that there are many uprisings and symbols of anti-regeme forces that may overthrow government and that there are many protests that reject the current government. The evidence that he presents in this article provides mainly the thought that Syria will fall into a civil war, but the upcoming election is hopeful for many Syrians that wish to end the conflicts. The author tells the article in his point of view. He uses some opinions, but many facts to support those opinions. This author is a reliable source because he lives in Syria and is a Syrian historian with a long list of credentials. 

SJS 1- "Globalization, knowledge, and the limits of (inter)disciplinary"

Source: Elisabeth Mudimbe-Boyi. "Globalization, knowledge, and the limits of (inter)disciplinary." Research in African Literatures Vol. #: not listed Issue # not listed. 10 February 2016. Page #s not listed URL: http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/suic/AcademicJournalsDetailsPage/AcademicJournalsDetailsWindow?failOverType=&query=&prodId=SUIC&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&display-query=&mode=view&displayGroupName=Journals&limiter=&currPage=&disableHighlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_results=&p=SUIC&action=e&catId=&activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE%7CA166935449&source=Bookmark&u=hell32414&jsid=040f5d8198e1d4a8ab0c069d6c40e1f2

Credentials: Professor of French and Comparative Literature

Summary: This article talks about if globalization is tearing culture apart or if it is leading it to a multicultural multipolar world. Does westernization lead to a truly hybrid global consciousness? The author examines many different books and looks at their different viewpoints about globalization. Globalization reveals a fiction of isolated cultures, yet globalization also can lead to better quality lives. 

Analysis: The author does not make a strong argument really to one side or the other, more she just examines multiple arguments. Some key vocabulary in this article is "globalization," "Culture," "ethnicity," and "immigration." While the author distinguishes between facts and opinions, again she mainly analyzes multiple arguments about globalization but does not choose one side. I believe this author is a reliable source because while she does not give you her actual opinion, she helps interpret other people's facts and opinions, and makes it easier to understand the arguments of globalization. 

SJS1-"Intensive Care for the United Nations"

SJS1- “Intensive Care for the United Nations”

Citation: Weiss, Thomas G. "Intensive Care for the United Nations." Current History 109.730 (2010): 322-28. Print.

Author Credentials: Thomas Weiss is a political science professor at The Graduate Center of the City University of New York. Weiss is also the author of “What’s Wrong With the United Nations and How to Fix It.” Weiss is known for being an expert in the politics of the United Nations. This makes Weiss incredibly qualified to write an essay examining the weaknesses of the UN (United Nations) and how to amend them.

Summary: The article addresses how the United Nations seems ineffective in combating modern day problems and in order to become formidable a reform needs to occur. The article begins by explaining how the United Nations is crucial to governing an interconnected world, especially in managing health hazards, international crime, nuclear development, and human trafficking. The article uses socio-historical evidence to highlight how the UN was founded 65 years ago at the end of World War II and prevailed through historical events in the 1960s-70s up to current events. Next, the article examines the four main reasons why the UN is becoming ineffective. Weiss states that countries in the UN are more focused on what is best for them than the global good of the world, that the UN is plagued by frivolous fights between the industrialized North and the developing South, that the UN is unorganized and dysfunctional, and that members are recruited to the UN based on chance and individual personalities. Next, Weiss provides solutions to each of the United Nation’s complications.  Weiss explains that northern countries and southern countries have to collaborate to overcome their historic bickering. Continuing, the article outlines how a serious reform movement could make the UN more coherent. Weiss also explains how if staff members were appointed by merit this would make individuals more focused on the global good and it would reinvigorate the UN. Lastly, the article speculates on how the Obama administration will handle foreign affairs. The article connects to what we are learning in class because in “Globalization and Diversity” the importance of the United Nations is addressed. “Globalization and Diversity” explains that globalization is inevitable, but the negative effects like economic disparities and environmental issues can be controlled. The text explains that through international institutions, like the UN, these demanding problems will be managed. 

Analysis: Weiss made a strong argument through his comprehensible and coherent organization. First, Weiss explains why he is writing the article, then he analyzes four problems, next he offers solutions to the problems, and lastly he connects the article to the future of the United States. Secondly, Weiss does provide sufficient evidence to support why the UN needs to be mended. Although dated, his four points of what needs to be restored are focused. Since Weiss avoids large generalizations, he is able to supply an ample amount of data to support his points. In addition, Weiss does distinguish facts and opinions by referencing where he got his information. For example, when he is discussing the idea of “good global citizenship,” he says “(an expression coined by Gareth Evans, the former Australian foreign minister and one-time president of the International Crisis Group).” However, the reader has to be careful because Weiss often seamlessly transitions from someone else’s ideas to his own and then stretches them from opinion to fact. Lastly, Weiss is a reliable source due to the focus of his studies. Weiss is an acclaimed expert in politics of the United Nations, which makes him a dependable author for this specific article. Also, being published in an academic journal helps illustrate his reliability. Overall, Thomas Weiss’s coherent argument, abundant information, acknowledgment of sources, and field of study makes the article strong and reliable. 

SJS1 - Nationalism and Globalization in South America

Source: Siekmeier, James. "Nationalism and Globalization in South America."  Current History February, 2015. Vol 114. Issue 769. 68-72. 

Author Credentials: James Siekmeier is an associate professor of history at the University of West Virginia, with a Ph.D. from Cornell University. 

Summary: Nationalism is present in Latin America, and is used as a way to fend off globalization. Nationalism and globalization seem to be to forces that counteract each other, but without one, the other could not exist. In this context, globalization refers to either the increasing connections between all aspects of the modern world, or the idea creating an world where international transactions are free and open. The three categories of nationalism that are listed include the nationalism of elite officials, indigenous people, as well as the working class. Physical and social integration are the main causes of nationalism in nineteenth century Latin America. The new nationalism is not driven by the same forces, but a new one known as "plurinacionalismo." This form of nationalism groups Latin America into a nation comprised of cultures and  languages. This differs from the traditional idea of nationalism in a nation-state. Latin American nationalism is very unique compared to nationalism from other regions across the globe, having gained political independence well before social and economic independence. In addition, Latin America has very diverse population, in multiple aspects, which only weakens its unity as a nation. Populist nationalism arose as the working class sought out more of a voice in government. Cultural nationalism is another important point, because the values of the Latin American's differs greatly from the values of a North American. Economic nationalism supports the deviation of national economies from the worldwide system. This variation of nationalism arose when the United States began to exploit the natural resources that Latin America had. Their fear for the loss of their resources and the effects it would have on the generations to come gave birth to economic nationalism. Globalization, in short, increases the connection of the entire world. Media, migration, and economic transaction drive globalization across the globe. A problem arises from the increasing globalization. It can cause the nationalism of a nation to either gain strength of diminish. Therefore, globalization is what caused Latin America to gain such a heavy sense of nationalism that continues to exist in the present.

Analysis: The argument he proposed, which exposes th link between globalization and nationalism, is very well organized. He was able to include a sufficient amount of very convincing information in his writing. Latin America was a very good model to revolve around, displaying multiple negative consequensenced of globalization, a process that is meant to create positive outcomes. Siekmeier refrains from including his opinion in the article entirely.  I believe that he is a reliable source, having published work in multiple scholarly journals, as well a Ph.D.

SJS1: "China's Bullying No Match for U.S Pacific Power"

Source: Cumings, Bruce. "China's Bullying No Match for US Pacific Power." Current History (2014): 245-51. Print.

Authors Credentials: Notable author of mid to late 20th century southeast asian military history.

Summary: In recent years conflicts around the world have been marked by the recurring philosophy that one nations hates another than that nation another and so on until it round snack to the first nation creating a circle of conflict. However, in today's ever changing world of conflict in east Asia this is not the case. Chinese aggression towards their neighbors by developing their country into a world military power had created many enemies. These enemies, many of which were once diehard enemies of the United States, have now allied themselves with the U.S and each other with China as a common enemy. Notably Japan and Vietnam who were both at one point in history in all out war with the U.S. These alliances show very clearly China's growing inability to wage war with the U.S and her allies. One of the key reasons for this is China's inferior military technology which most of which dates to 1960s era USSR surplus equipment as well as a more philosophical consequence. This consequence is China's lack of innovation. While China does provide many manufacturing services for the world, it lacks the ability to design and produce and export both material products and intellectual property and ideals at the same level as competing nations. This is also evident in China's lack of military technological development as many neighboring nations are far more advance in nuclear capability than China itself. In the end, China's aggression is supported by little as it has no power to support its malign politics.

Analysis: While at first this abstract of modern Sino-American relation may not appear to be related to out unit, it is to a great extent. In today's modern world we seem to believe that the ancient inequities between major societies is not existent as it was in the days of the Spanish conquistadors and British settlers relating to Native Americans. While in realities such inequalities still exist in the east-west axis. This is exemplified by China's( the east) military inequity with the U.S(the west) and her allies. These weaknesses are clear by China's clear material and intellectual inferiority to the west. While racially they two sides are equal, the ancient principle of western superiority are still evident in today's contemporary, globalized world.

PDP 1 – Instructions in Letter Writing by an Egyptian Scribe 

Author Bio: The author was seemingly anonymous. With this being the case, the piece still provided a first person perspective, centered on Egyptian text that described different opinions and insights into the lifestyles of ancient Egypt. 

Date/Context: The article was placed at one point around 1200 B.C.E. This time period displayed the development of Egyptian writing systems, and the author as a tutor educating others of the profession. The author gave way to many political, economical, and social issues surrounding such profession and time. 

Summary: The document is informing the reader about the job of the scribe. The author regards the job as very important, saving those of the profession hardships that many others face. The author is very instructing on how to go about this, and lists many examples of the “fate of the unskilled laborer”; unknown, an ass in front of the scribe. In hindsight, the author raises the position of a scribe to be safe, beneficiary, and of great service to the society. 

Key Quote: “Be a scribe, and be speared from soldiering! You call and one says: ‘Here I am.’ You are safe from torments. Every man seeks to raise himself up. Take note of it!” 

PDP1- The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Author Bio: The United Nations was formed in April 1945, immediately following World War II. Fifty countries' delegates met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on International Organization to form the international body that would replace the League of Nations. This assembly, known as the United Nations, stated in its Charter that went into effect on October 24, 1945, that they are committed to rescue succeeding generations from the suffering of war by promoting peace. The United Nations now consists of 193 countries, all of which are Member States of the General Assembly. There is also the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, the Trusteeship Council, and the UN Secretariat. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights specifically was written by the Human Rights Commission under the chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt.

Date/Context: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was accepted by the United Nations on December 10, 1948, at the United Nations General Assembly in Paris. It was a result of World War II, and was a major step forward for the young United Nations, which had only been formed three years earlier. The declaration was the first document to assemble and present thirty fundamental human rights, of which many are now incorporated into the constitutional laws of democratic nations. This was a turning point for many countries in how they treated humans and what rights they respected.

Summary: Accepted by the United Nations in 1948, three years after the conclusion of the Second World War and the creation of the United Nations, it begins with a preface that outlines the reasons for creating the declaration and states that the General Assembly proclaims it as a common standard for all people and nations that strives to promote respect for these rights and freedoms, including freedom of speech and belief, and liberty from fear and want. It immediately launches into the rights of humans. The first two articles state that all humans receive equally these rights, without exceptions. The following 9 articles, Articles 3 through 11, describe the many rights concerning freedom, law and justice. Humans have the right to life, liberty, and security of person, and cannot be subjected to slavery or torture; they also all have recognition as a person before the law and have the same rights concerning justice. Article 12 protects people's security, privacy, family, home, and correspondence. The next five articles focus on freedom in movement between countries, right to asylum, right to nationality, and rights about marriage and property. Articles 18 and 19 grant people the freedoms of thought, conscience, religion, and opinion. The following articles, up to Article 28, concern people's rights in society. Everyone is allowed to peacefully assemble and associate, take part in government, receive equal public service, receive social security, have the right to work and equal pay for equal work, the rights to rest, leisure, an adequate standard of living, and education, and the right to participate in cultural life. The last three articles, Articles 28, 29, and 30, entitle people to a social and international order that realizes people's rights, subject people only to limitations that are determined by law to protect other people's rights, and end by stating that nothing in the document may be interpreted in a way that allows any State, group, or people to perform or engage in any act that destroys the rights and freedoms listed. 

Key Quotation: "Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people...Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge...All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights."

PDP1 - Yalta Agreement

Sorry for the delay - unexpected family emergency!

Author Bio:  This document was an agreement reached by President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States, Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain, and Generalissimo Josef Stalin of the Soviet Union, the most powerful leaders of the Allied countries.  

• Roosevelt a democrat was elected the 32nd president in 1932 at the height of the Great Depression.  Although he began his fourth term in office in 1945, he would die in office on April 12, 1945.  
• Churchill the Prime Minister of Great Britain also held the titles of First Lord of the Admirality and Minister of Defense.  His strong personality and leadership is often credited as a primary factor in bringing about a British victory.   
• Stalin rose to power during the mid-1920's bringing an end to the civil war that enveloped the Soviet Union after the Bolshevik Revolution.  Know for ruling with an iron-fist, Stalin committed the USSR to the Allied cause in 1941 after Germany invaded.

Date/Context:  By 1945, much of the world was at war and divided into two opposing spheres: the Allied Powers, led by Britain, the US, and the USSR, and the Axis Powers, including Japan, Germany, and Italy.  This war brought about destruction on a massive scale.  Germany's Nazi regime was committed to destroying the Jewish "race" and any other group or individual that did not fit into the "ideal."  In the Pacific, Japan was seeking to establish a vast empire.  This document was written BEFORE the official end of the war (VE Day = May 8, 1945 & VJ Day = September 2, 1945) but lay the foundation of a post-War era in which the United States and the Soviet Union divide the globe into spheres of influence.  Further, this document established principles for a new international organization to replace the defunct League of Nations.

Summary: Written in February 1945 and released in the US in March, this document created a new international organization (the United Nations), demanded the complete surrender Germany, called for German reparations, established borders for Poland, Yugoslavia, and Southeastern Europe, and defined the conditions by which the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.  The United Nations was to include a Security Council in which each of the 5 permanent members (Britain, USA, USSR, France, & China) would have veto power.  This new organization was also set with the task of dividing up and/or granting independence to territories after the war.  This agreement reasserted the Atlantic Charter, calling for new governments chosen by the people in the areas of Europe that were occupied by Germany.  Further, upon the its surrender, Germany would be dismembered and divided into zones of influence.  Germany was to pay reparations for the costs of the war with "the chief purpose of destroying the war potential of Germany."  This Yalta Agreement also define the borders of Yugoslavia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, and Iran and established that Turkey would control the Dardanelles and the Bosporous.  Finally, Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan only after German surrender and under the condition that Soviet claims in the lands controlled by Japan would not be questioned by other Allied states.

Key Quotation:  "The Crimea Conference of the heads of the Governments of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics...came to the following conclusions:"

PDP1- "The Cartographer's Mirror"

Title: PDP 1- "The Cartographer's Mirror"

Author Bio: Arthur Jay Klinghoffer is a college professor, who teaches political science and has pursued studies in the fields of Soviet Foreign Policy, Russian politics, and African politics. In his work, "The Cartographer's Mirror," he includes details about his childhood fascination with maps, and describes his view of maps as, "the visual representation of world politics." This early interest in geography prompted Klinghoffer to devote his studies to the impact of maps and the Earth on worldwide interactions. As a result, he seems to view maps primarily as a political tool and neglects to acknowledge that they have numerous other uses in which minor subjectivity does not play a role. For example, road maps are simply a means of navigation and are not more or less helpful based on the values or position of the cartographer. Due to his slight bias and field of expertise, he fails to portray the entire scope of maps and focuses almost solely on the aspects that relate to politics. The author takes on a somewhat hypocritical potstion in this document, as he criticizes the bias present in cartographers without removing his own personal bias from his analysis. Overall, and despite several instances of personal opinion and subjectivity in his work, Klinghoffer seems to be a reliable source within his facet of study.

Date/Context: This primary document was written in modern times with modern day knowledge and technology at hand. As a result of this position the author was able to provide a full analysis of the long history of cartography and compare today's geographic and geopolitical understanding with that of the first societies to map out the world. This stance is advantageous because it allows for a fair consideration of all developments in the field of cartography. Klinghoffer's analysis is not specific to any historical period, but generalizes and covers a large portion of the span between ancient and modern societies.

Summary: While maps are often considered to be indisputable and entirely reliable, all maps inherently contain some form of cartographer bias or personal influence. Just as humans once  naturally assumed that the solar system is centered around the Earth, cartographers consciously or subconsciously center maps from their personal perspective and slightly misrepresent the Earth. Klinghoffer denotes that this subjectivity is inevitable because individuals are incapable of completely removing themselves from their own "values, aesthetics, and politics." In addition, mapmaking naturally involves some elements of political perspective and even creativity. As a result, maps tend to, "'construct' the world rather than 'reproduce' it." As seen in the works of early cartographers, maps often include elements of fantasy and imaginative invention to fill the  unknown areas of the Earth. While modern maps have largely eliminated these unsupported guesses, there is still an excessive amount of uncertainty and variation. For example, the world and its geography is constantly changing due to continental drift, shifts in sea levels and tides, manmade features, and relentless political border disputes. Due to this constant evolution of Earth's geography, maps are drawn and redrawn, which results in perpetual controversy. While maps remain an essential tool to the political and geographic function of the entire world, they must be used critically and with an understanding of their innate bias.

Key Quotation: "Maps and pictures are two-dimensional representations of a three-dimensional reality, and both contain an altered perspective even if there is an effort to conceal it."

PDP1 - Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries & People

Author Bio: The author of this text is the United Nations. The United Nations is a world group that wants to promote global cooperation. They were started after World War II ended and replaced the League of Nations. They also want to promote human rights, environment safety, and peace within the world. This article was adopted by the General Assembly which is one of the United Nations main assemblies. The United Nations' headquarters is stationed in New York, however it still looks at the bigger picture wants world peace. This organization's efforts to try and reach world peace made them get recognize and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001. This group solved many dilemmas in the world and helped set up many international structures around the world. Although the United Nations started off small, as time progressed they stated to increase. They wrote this article in order to show ways human rights and global peace can be achieved.

Date/Context: This article was adopted in December of 1960. The article's main job was to promote human rights and peace around the world. During this time, there was no peace or cooperation in the world. There were a lot of terrible acts that happened during this time period and the United Nations wanted to get the world out that the world needed peace among each other. The organization wanted to stop the horrifying things that happened.

Summary: The main idea of the article is to promote human rights and peace. The article begins to talk about how humans no matter where they are have to have equal rights in order to progress freedom and better standards. Then, it states how people are determined to get freedom by themselves no matter who they are, however their are predicaments that might stop them from achieving this goal. Next, it goes on to talk about how people should accept the assistance of the United Nations so they can put an end to colonialism, and people just have to listen to themselves. The article says in order to gain peace there must be an end to colonialism everywhere around the world. This also means that the new freed territories must attain their own independence and must be allowed to practice their own rights on their own national territory. The the article goes on to explain ideas that could end colonialism really quick. These ideas are allowing humans to practice their rights, allow countries to have their own independence, allow freed territories to gain independence, and finally everyone must respect other people's rights.

Key Quotation: "Solemnly proclaims the necessity of bringing to a speedy and unconditional end colonialism in all its forms and manifestations."

PDP1 - Why Study History?

Author Bio: The author, William H. McNeil, is a renowned historian and former professor at the University of Chicago. McNeil would go on to write a plethora of books relating to the history of western civilization. With this in mind, evident biases may include the knowledge of western civilization rather than "big history". In other words, McNeil is writing from the standpoint of a "pure" historian. He doesn't necessarily needed any sciences, social or natural, to back of any of his information. Furthermore, since he fought for the U.S army in the European Theater during World War II, his experiences with warfare inevitably shape his beliefs and morals after the war. Nonetheless, this document is reliable because it provides us the necessary information that McNeil shared with us through his knowledge as a historian. He did an exemplary job reasoning his argument through his analysis of the benefits of learning the history of human civilization.

Date/Context: This document, in essence, summarizes why history is to be taught to students across the nation and in addition the outcome it can have on the students for the future. Furthermore, the document is fairly dated, as it was written in 1985. Keeping this in mind, it is important to recall that during this time period, the Cold War was at its height. Moreover, events that occurred in the past twenty years were unknown of what the article was written. Such events such as 9/11 has lead to the world's outlook on terrorism in a whole new spectrum. In retrospect, the time period in which this document was written brought us an analysis that may seem outdated since many new events unfolded between 1985 and today.

Summary: This article begins by abruptly asking the reader why should we care about influential human beings such as Cleopatra, Confucius, or George Washington. McNeil goes on to explain how historical knowledge is literally one collective and constructive memory of humans. Memory is also something that is not fixed and permanent, as when time passes, new experiences unfold. Furthermore, many of these memories aren't particularly sweet, as they may be bitter and not something people would like to revisit. McNeil points out how the changing perspectives of historical understating are the best introduction to any practical problem of real life. With this in mind, it is vital that history is taught to every young person. History, which is our collective memory, allows us to share ideas and beliefs about the past - as there are many different point's of view's and interpretations of the past. In addition, examining all specific parts of our collective memory helps young people understand it the best and most accurately. This means that the addition of the role of women and minorities would make historical education complete by enabling all perspectives to be analyzed by students.. According to McNeil, historians have figured out the three best levels of teaching history to young people. The first level has to do with personal-local history. This level is the most imperative since it allows the students to understand what had occurred quite literally around them and can use that knowledge to better understand themselves. The next level has to do with nation history. This lays the foundation for students to understand who we are as a nation and to, as stressed before, help them to understand themselves better. Last but not least is global history, which is perhaps the most time-consuming to teach. If a student understands alien religious beliefs, customs, and cultures, they will be able to interact much more suitably at a social level. This allows the student to finally broaden his or her sense of humanity. In essence, the understanding and education of history and historical events can help make an individual understand him or herself better while in addition understanding the world around them.

Key Quotation: "Historical Knowledge is no more and no less carefully and critically constructed memory." This quotation is paramount because it serves as the touchstone for what McNeil will be arguing for the rest of the article.

PDP1 - History's Unmarked Grave of Discarded Lies

PDP1 - History's Unmarked Grave of Discarded Lies

Author Bio:  John McConnell and a team of two other speechwriters wrote this for President Bush to address the damage and casualties brought about by the terrorist attacks on 9/11. This group had previously written four State of the Union addresses for Bush. President Bush and this team show bias against groups like Al-Qaeda not only because of their attacks, but he disapproves of the way that they train and control their recruits. There is also religious bias in the speech, which is exemplified in phrases such as, "may God grant us wisdom and may he watch over the United States of America." Although Al-Qaeda's motives and ideals are discussed, they are mostly described as "evil" and "enemies", which are relative terms. The use of propaganda techniques is evident, such as the use of words with positive connotations when describing America and Americans, and negative words when describing Al-Qaeda. Also, Bush appeals to the crowd's emotions when he tells them that he will keep George Howard's police shield as a reminder of his actions. One other important example of propaganda is the use of generalizations. The phrases, "All of America," and "all who believe in progress and pluralism," group together and speak for everyone who is seen as "good". All of the "bad" people, such as terrorists, are all put into one group with "fascism, Nazism and totalitarianism,"

Date/Context: This speech was given to Congress on September 21, 2001. This was ten days after the terrorist group Al Qaeda attacked the Pentagon, World Trade Center, and Hijacked a commercial airliner. There were nearly 7,000 deaths in the United States as well as countries around the world. Many of these countries had already begun to offer support and supplies to the U.S.

Summary:  The purpose of this speech was mostly to inform Congress and the American public that the attacks on 9/11 were planned and executed by an extremist group called Al-Qaeda. Another large portion of the speech is purely for inspiration and acknowledges many heroes during the attack, proposes plans to destroy terrorist organizations, and aims to give hope to Americans by explaining how we will overcome the "dark threat of violence" from terrorists. This speech also gives information on the extremist group, explains new safety measures, and thanks allied countries for their support in the time after the attacks.

Key Quotation: "Tonight we are a country awakened to danger and called to defend freedom."